Aliyah (translated from Hebrew – “lift”) – the return of the Jews to Eretz Israel. On July 5, 1950, the Knesset adopted “Law of Return” (“ḥok ha-shvūt”), which formally established the repatriation of Jews to Israel, as well as their immediate receipt of full citizenship rights and assistance from the state. Such waves of aliyah are distinguished:
- Eastern European (mostly Russian) aliyah at the end of the 19th – at the beginning of the 20th century. It is divided into three periods: “First aliyah”, “Second aliyah”, “Third aliyah”;
- Polish aliyah (formed the majority of the Yishuv on the eve of World War II);
- German aliyah (“yekim”) 1930s;
- Aliyah from the countries of the East in the 1950s and 1960s;
- Aliyah from the countries of Eastern and Central Europe after World War II;
- Aliyah from Anglo-Saxon countries (mainly from the USA);
- Aliyah from the countries of Latin America;
- Aliyah from the USSR (later – the CIS and the Baltic states).
Aliyah Bet (“Haapala”, illegal immigration) – the organized exodus of Jews to Palestine during the entire period of the British Mandate (1922–1948), which was a direct manifestation of defiance of the British government's ban on Jewish immigration. Most immigrants arrived in Palestine by sea; the first such ship arrived in 1934. In total, on the eve of the establishment of the State of Israel, approximately 530,000 immigrants arrived, a quarter of them by way of Aliyah Bet.
“Betar” (Joseph Trumpeldor – “Joseph Trumpeldor union”) – youth Zionist organization, created in Riga in 1923, named after Joseph Trumpeldor, the hero of the Zionist movement of the first half of the 20th century. “Betar” considered the creation of a Jewish state on both banks of the Jordan to be its goal. The ideology of the organization was based on the principle of monism – a single flag (white and blue), a single anthem (“Hatikva”) and a single Zionist worldview, free from the influence of any other ideology, in particular socialist.
“White Paper of 1939” – the report of the Minister of Colonies of Great Britain M. MacDonald to the British Parliament on the policy of the government in relation to the British Mandate in Palestine. Published on May 17, 1939. The main ideas of the “White Paper”: the declaration of the creation of a binational state of Jews and Arabs in the future; the maximum quota of Jewish immigration for 5 years – 75,000 people – was outlined. In fact, this meant a breach of Great Britain's obligations under the main provisions of the Balfour Declaration.
“Bnei Akiva” (“Sons of Akiva”) – the youth wing of the religious-Zionist labor movement Ha-poel ham-mizrahi, named after Rabbi Akiva, an outstanding theologian and one of the founders of Judaism. It was created in Jerusalem in 1929. The spiritual leader of the movement was a well-known public figure of the 20th century, the author of the philosophical concept of religious Zionism, Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook (1865–1935).
British Mandate in Palestine – the regime of Great Britain's administration of the territories of the former Ottoman Empire in the Middle East from 1922 to May 14, 1948. The mandate extended to the territory of modern Israel, Jordan, the Palestinian Authority (Judea, Samaria and the Gaza Strip). Liquidated on May 14, 1948 in connection with the proclamation of the establishment of the State of Israel.
“Conscientious objector” – a group of citizens who, due to objective and, usually, subjective reasons, were refused to leave the USSR. In Soviet society, a person's desire to emigrate from the USSR, although it was not formally a crime, was interpreted as treason to fellow citizens and the Soviet Motherland. The emigration mood was especially strong among Soviet Jews, although also among other national groups (Soviet Germans, Greeks, Armenians). In the 1960s and 1970s, the number of “conscientious objectors” grew in proportion to the number of applications for departure. Thus, in 1968, 28 Jews were denied the right to emigrate, in 1969 – 1,079, in 1970 – 1,439.
Histadrut HaKlalit shel HaOvdim B’Eretz Yisrael (The General Federation of Workers of Eretz Israel) – better known as Histadrut. Founded in 1920, this national-level organization was also one of the nation's largest employers. Except the trade union activities, the Histadrut provides many economic and social services.
Golan Heights – disputed territory in the Middle East between Israel and Syria. The western part of the territory was captured by Israel during the Six-Day War of 1967. In 1987. The Knesset of Israel adopted the “Law on the Golan Heights”, according to the provisions of which Israel's sovereignty over this territory was unilaterally declared. However, the UN Security Council did not support this decision (Resolution No. 497 of December 17, 1981). The de facto demarcation line between Syria and Israel, which are de jure at war, remains the UN Disengagement Monitoring Force Zone established by UN Security Council Resolution No. 350 of May 31, 1974, following the end of the Yom Kippur War.
Balfour Declaration of 1917 – the official letter of the British Foreign Minister A. Balfour to Lord W. Rothschild, a representative of the British Jewish community, about the benevolent attitude of Great Britain to the Zionist aspirations of the Jews.
Jordan River West Bank (including East Jerusalem) – one of the two parts of the partially recognized Palestinian state. According to the Oslo agreements of 1993–1995, the territory is divided into 3 zones:
- “zone А” is under the full control of the Palestinian National Authority (PNA);
- “zone B” – under the civilian control of the PNA, but under the military (security) control of Israel;
- “zone C” (most of the territory) – under the full control of Israel.
Internment (Eng. Intern – detain) – 1) the requirement for certain persons to leave their usual places of settlement due to a decision on forced settlement in another established place. 2) Forcible detention, resettlement or other restriction of freedom of movement in order to prevent anti-state aspirations.
On August 31, 1946, on In Cyprus, Jewish internment camps began to operate. British authorities held people who immigrated to Palestine (or tried to do so) in violation of British law.
The camps located in the area of Dekelia and Famagusta operated from August 1946 to January 1949. They held a total of 51,000 people who were forcibly brought to Cyprus and placed in camps. The British foreign minister at the time, Ernest Bevin, initiated the deportation of those Jews who tried to get to Palestine in excess of the established quota. In total, 9 such camps operated in Cyprus.
“Irgun” (“Irgun Ha-Tzvaʾī Ha-Leūmī”, or “Etzel”) – a national military organization founded in the summer of 1931 by the commanders of several units that broke away from the “Khaqani” due to disagreement over the priority of defense strategy and tactics, led by Abraham Tehomi. The first commander of the new organization was David Raziel. The basis of “Irgun” was made up of city residents, natives of Poland and Yemen. Like another militarized group – “Lehi”, “Irgun” was particularly active during and after World War II against the British authorities in Palestine.
Yishuv (translated from Hebrew – inhabited place) – the collective name of the Jewish population of Eretz Israel. It was distributed mainly before the establishment of the State of Israel.
Kibbutz – a form of rural settlement-commune for joint economic activity. It played an important role in the formation of the State of Israel and its economic development.
Knesset – the unicameral parliament of Israel, which consists of 120 members and is elected by universal suffrage for four years. The highest legislative body of the state (according to the form of government, Israel is a parliamentary republic).
“Lehi” (“Lohamei Herut Israel”, Fighters for the Freedom of Israel) – a Jewish paramilitary organization created in 1940 as a result of a split in the Irgun, when a group of radicals led by Abraham Stern left the Irgun, disagreeing with the opinion of the majority regarding the armistice with the British. Like the Irgun, the organization had several thousand-armed men, who were integrated into the Israel Defense Forces in June 1948.
Mapai (Mifleget Poalei Eretz Yisrael; “Labor Party of the Land of Israel”) − an Israeli political party affiliated with the Zionist Labor Movement. It was created in 1930 on the territory of mandated Palestine. The first leaders of the party were David Ben-Gurion and Berl Katznelson. Після створення The State of Israel party formed the basis of ruling coalitions in Israel for several decades, eventually ceasing to exist in 1968, uniting with the workers from the center-left parties, Ahdut ha-Avoda (“Unity of Labor”) and Rafi (Reshimat Poalei Israel, List of Israeli Workers).
Mahal – the name given to volunteers from around the world (the vast majority of whom were Jewish) who came to Israel during the 1948 War of Independence and became part of the IDF. The approximate number is 3,500 volunteers from 43 countries; about 1,000 were volunteers from the USA.
Mossad (“Office of Intelligence and Special Tasks”) – Israel's political intelligence, officially established on December 13, 1949. The first director was Reuven Shiloah. The most famous Mossad operation was the kidnapping of the Nazi criminal Adolf Eichmann (responsible for the "final solution of the Jewish question") from Argentina, where he was hiding after World War II.
Mossad LeAliyah Bet – organization for illegal immigration, created by Jewish leaders in Palestine in 1937. The leader was Saul Meyerov (Shaul Avigur). The organization consisted of two departments: “A” (illegal immigration) and “B” (legal immigration). Liquidated in 1951 by the decision of the Israeli government.
Moshav – the name of rural settlements in Israel. The main types are moshav ovdim (“labor settlements”) and moshav shitufi (“cooperative settlement”). In fact, all moshavs represent a settlement model in which independent agricultural work by the method of family contracting is combined with the social life of the settlement, considering the principle of equality of settlement members, but at the same time with respect for their individual choices.
Palestinian National Authority (PNA) – the name of the governing bodies created to manage the territories of the Gaza Strip and part of the territories of the West Bank of the Jordan River. It was created in 1994, according to the Oslo Accords.
Palmach (“Plugot Maḥatz” – impact mouths) – special units of the Haganah, created in 1941. Their task was to organize acts of sabotage against the Palestinian Arabs and conduct a guerrilla war against the German army, in the event of its occupation of Palestine. The first commander was Moshe Dayan.
Gaza Strip – the self-governing Palestinian territory on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, which, together with the West Bank of the Jordan River, is part of the partially recognized State of Palestine. In 2005, according to the “Final Disengagement Plan”, Israel withdrew its troops from the Sector and liquidated its own settlements. Since 2007, the territory is under the control of the Palestinian Islamist organization Hamas. However, the conflict over the territory continues between Israel and militants of radical groups, which is intensified by constant terrorist attacks from the Arab side.
St James's Palace Conference – was held from February 7 to March 16, 1939 in London to resolve the issue of the future political status of Palestine. Negotiations between the British government, Arab and Jewish delegations have broken down over vague promises about future Palestinian “independence”.
East Jerusalem – the eastern part of the city of Jerusalem. During the War of Independence of 1947-1949, the eastern part of the city was captured by Transjordan. During the Six-Day War of 1967, it was recaptured by Israel and annexed to the rest of the city by a Knesset resolution in 1980. UN Security Council Resolution No. 478 recognizes Israel's occupation of the eastern part of the city as illegal. The Palestinian Authority's Arab population considers East Jerusalem to be the capital of a future Palestinian state, a cornerstone of the peace process between Israel and the Palestinian Authority.
Haganah (defense) – Jewish military underground organization in Palestine, existed during 1920–1948s. Its creation was facilitated by such events as: the Arab attack on Jewish settlements in the Upper Galilee, during which Tel Hai was destroyed, and 8 of its defenders (in particular, Jewish social and political figure J. Trumpeldor) were killed; Arab riots in Jerusalem (March-April 1920). With the creation of the State of Israel, the Haganah became the foundation of the Israel Defense Forces (IDF).
Hamas (Ḥarakat al-Muqāwamah al-ʾIslāmiyyah, Islamic resistance movement) – a Palestinian Islamic movement and political party formed shortly after the start of the First Intifada. З the founders of the movement were radical-minded representatives of the “Muslim Brotherhood” branch – one of the largest Islamic organizations based in Egypt, including Sheikh Ahmed Ismail Hassan Yassin. The organization is recognized as a terrorist organization by the governments of a number of leading countries in the world.
Hezbollah (Party of Allah) – Lebanese Shia paramilitary Islamist organization, political party. It was founded during the Israeli operation “Peace for Galilee” in 1982 by a group of supporters of the leader of the Islamic Revolution in Iran in 1979. Ruhollah Khomeini. Recognized as a terrorist organization by the governments of the world's leading countries.
IDF (The Israel Defense Forces) – the army of the State of Israel and its main security body. It was created on May 26, 1948 by integrating the combat units of Haganah, Etzel and Lehi. The specificity of the IDF is the military service of women.
Military conflicts in the history of the State of Israel
(The first) The Arab-Israeli War of 1947–1949s, or the War for Independence – war between the Jewish population of Palestine (later - the State of Israel) and irregular Arab military units (later - a number of Arab countries of the Middle East, in particular Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, Transjordan, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Yemen). The result of the war was the formation of the State of Israel; the exodus of the Palestinian and Jewish population from Arab and Muslim countries.
(The second) Arab-Israeli war (Sinai War) of 1956 – international conflict with the participation of Israel, Great Britain, France and Egypt, which lasted from October 1956 to March 1957 and was connected with the determination of the status of the Suez Canal administration. As a result, Israel gained free navigation through the Gulf of Tiran, which Egypt had blocked to Israeli ships since 1950.
Six-Day War (Arab-Israeli war of 1967) – the war between Israel and neighboring states: Egypt, Jordan and Syria, which lasted from June 5 to 10, 1967. As a result, Israel conquered the Gaza Strip and the Sinai Peninsula (from Egypt), the West Bank (including East Jerusalem) (from Jordan), and the Golan Heights (from Syria).
The War of Attrition 1967–1970 – conflict between Egypt, Jordan, the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and Israel over the complete withdrawal of the Israeli army from the Sinai Peninsula. The conflict ended in a ceasefire, the borders remained unchanged, with no real commitment to serious peace talks.
Yom Kippur War of 1973 – the war that lasted from October 6 to 25, 1973, between a coalition of Arab countries (in particular, Egypt and Syria) and Israel. Military operations took place mainly in the Sinai Peninsula and the Golan Heights, as well as in the African part of Egypt and Northern Israel. As a result, Israel won a military victory, but did not receive a guarantee of military superiority over the Arab countries. So, the process was started that led to the first peaceful recognition of Israel by Egypt, an Arab country, as a result of the signing of the Camp David Accords.
Camp David Accords of 1978–1979s – political agreements signed by the President of Egypt Anwar Sadat and the Prime Minister of Israel Menachem Begin on September 17, 1978 at the residence of the President of the United States in Camp David. Two agreements as part of the peace process were signed in Washington in the presence of US President Jimmy Carter. As a result, the Israeli army retreated from the Sinai Peninsula (until 1982), the Palestinian Authority was established in the West Bank of the Jordan River and the Gaza Strip. The agreements also provided for the free passage of Israeli ships through the Suez Canal and the recognition of the Straits of Tiran and the Gulf of Aqaba as international waterways.
During the 1970s and 1980s, powerful terrorist attacks took place, in particular the killing of members of the Israeli national team at the 1972 Olympic Games in Munich and the taking of hostages in Entebbe (Uganda) in 1976. In the 1980s, there were also numerous Palestinian protests (the First Intifada of 1987–1991), which ended with the signing of the Oslo Accords. However, later the protests gained new intensity (the Second Intifada of 2000–2005, etc.).
Oslo Accords of 1993–1995s – agreements between the State of Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), that started the peace process. As a result, the Palestinian Authority was formed, with limited self-government in parts of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. OZP was recognized as Israel's partner in negotiations on permanent status, in particular regarding Jerusalem, Israeli settlements, etc.
1982 Lebanon War– military conflict that took place during the civil war in Lebanon. Israel's military operation on the territory of Lebanon was aimed at destroying the bases of the PLO. As a result, Israel won a tactical victory, the PLO was expelled from Lebanon, which provoked a conflict between Israel and the South Lebanon Army (SLA), Hezbollah for South Lebanon.
2006 Lebanon War / War between Israel and Hezbollah – military conflict in Lebanon, northern Israel and the Golan Heights involving the Israel Defense Forces and the paramilitary forces of Hezbollah. In an attempt to end the hostilities, the UN Security Council passed Special Resolution 1701, supported by the Lebanese and Israeli governments. As a result, the conflict was stopped, most of the Israeli troops left the territory of Lebanon.
Gaza War / The war in Gaza 2008–2009 – armed conflict between Palestinian paramilitary groups in the Gaza Strip and the Israel Defense Forces. As a result, the latter was the first to announce a unilateral ceasefire and leave the territory. In turn, Hamas also announced a one-week ceasefire.
PERSONALITIES
Shaul AVIGUR / Saul Meyerov (1899−1978) – military and statesman, one of the creators of the Israeli intelligence services, head of the Mossad al-Aliya Beth organization. He participated in the defense of the Jewish settlement of Tel Hai from the Arabs, was a member of Kibbutz Kineret, D. Ben-Gurion's adviser on military issues and one of the organizers of the creation of a military industry.
Yigal ALLON (1918−1980) – Israeli statesman and military figure, one of the founders of the shock units “Khaqani” − Palmach. During the War of Independence, he headed the Southern Front, commander of a number of military operations.
Arthur BALFOUR (1848−1930) – British politician, Prime Minister (1902−1905), Foreign Minister (1916−1919). One of the authors of the Balfour Declaration of 1917.
Ernest BEVIN (1881−1951) – British statesman, Minister of Labor in the government of V. Churchill, Minister of Foreign Affairs in the government of K. Attlee. His proposal to create a federated state of Jews and Arabs in Palestine was rejected by both sides.
David BEN-GIRION (1886–1973) – political and statesman, leader of the Jewish labor movement in Palestine. Prime Minister of Israel (1948–1953, 1955–1963).
Yitzhak BEN-ZVI (1884–1963) – statesman, the second President of Israel (1952–1963). One of the signatories of the Declaration of Independence of Israel on May 14, 1948.
Simcha BLASS (1897–1962) – Israeli hydraulic engineer, author of the idea of drip irrigation. In 1939–1956, he was the initiator and author of almost all major water supply projects in Israel. In 1959, Blass implemented the first experimental drip irrigation system, which was implemented by his son, Ieshaya.
Chaim WEIZMANN (1874–1952) – politician, scientist, first president of the State of Israel 1948–1952), president of the World Zionist Organization (1920–1931, 1935–1946). Weizmann was also the founder of the research institute that is now named in his honor.
Theodor HERZL (1860–1904) – politician, founder of the World Zionist Organization, the ideology of political Zionism. In the work “The Jewish State. Experience of the Modern Solution of the Jewish Question” (1896), Herzl talks about the creation of an independent Jewish state as the key and only solution to the Jewish question.
Moshe DAYAN (1915−1981) – military and statesman. Minister of Defense of Israel during the Six-Day War, Chief of the General Staff of the Israel Defense Forces. As Minister of Foreign Affairs, he participated in the development of the Camp David Agreements.
Volodymyr (Ze’ev) JABOTINSKY (1880–1940) – writer and publicist, leading figure of the Zionist movement, co-founder of the State of Israel and the prototype of the IDF – Jewish self-defense units (Haganah).
Berl KATZNELSON (1887–1944) – politician, journalist, worker Zionist, leader of the Mapai movement, founder of Kibbutz Kineret.
Malcolm MACDONALD (1901−1981) – British politician. State Secretary for the Colonies (1935, 1938), Secretary of State for Dominions (1938−1939). Author of the 1939 White Paper on British Government policy in mandated Palestine.
Golda MEIR (1898–1978) – political and statesman. Prime Minister of Israel (1969–1974). She worked in the Merhaviya kibbutz in 1921–1924, headed the women's department of the General Federation of Workers. Meir was one of two women who signed the Declaration of Independence of Israel.
David RAZIEL (1910−1941) – one of the founders and head of the Irgun. Under his leadership, the organization carried out a series of terrorist attacks against the Arab population of Palestine. Died in 1941 during a sabotage operation to destroy oil towers near Baghdad on behalf of the British government.
Edmond ROTHSCHILD (1845−1934) – French philanthropist, organizer of the Jewish immigration movement to Palestine at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries. Having bought almost 25,000 hectares of land in Palestine, Rothschild handed it over to the Jewish Colonization Bank, spending about $50 million on these measures.
Yitzhak SADEH (1890−1952) – a military figure, one of the creators of the IDF, the head of Palmach, since 1945 the head of the general staff of the Haganah. After the disbandment, Palmahu left the military service.
Yitzhak TABENKIN (1888–1971) – one of the figures of Labor Zionism, the founder of the Histadrut, a participant in the defense of the Jewish settlement of Tel-Hai, one of the founders of the kibbutz movement. Later - a member of the Israeli Knesset.
Vasyl TARASENKO (1907−2001) – Soviet diplomat, Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Ukrainian SSR, head of the Ukrainian delegation at the session of the UN General Assembly in 1948, where he played a decisive role during the vote on the creation of the State of Israel on May 14, 1948.
Avraham TEHOMI (1903−1990) – commander of the Haganah and one of the founders of the Irgun.
Joseph TRUMPELDOR (1880–1920) – a political figure, a well-known activist of the early Zionist movement, an organizer of Jewish self-defense units in the settlements of Jewish repatriates in Palestine. Participant in the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905), the First World War (1914–1917). The creator of the “Ge-Halutz” organization, which helped Jews leave for Palestine. Died in the Tel-Hai settlement during a shootout with Arab units in 1920.
Isser HAREL (1912−2003) – statesman, director of the Israeli Mossad intelligence. He personally led the operation to arrest Adolf Eichmann in 1960 in Argentina. In different years, he was an adviser to the Prime Minister on defense and security, an adviser on intelligence and counter-terrorism.
Reuven SHILOAH (1910−1959) – statesman, creator and first director of the Israeli Mossad intelligence, diplomat. He was a personal adviser to President H. Weizman and Prime Minister D. Ben-Gurion on particularly important issues, took an active part in the Arab-Israeli negotiations on a cease-fire on O. Rhodes in 1949.
Avraham STERN (1907−1942) – Zionist activist, poet, founder and leader of the Lehi Organization (or the “Stern Gang” as the British authorities called it). Stern viewed Italian fascists and German Nazis as allies in the fight against the British. During 1939−1942, Lehi organized and committed a significant number of terrorist attacks against representatives of the British authorities (primarily, the police) and bank robberies. Stern was shot during one of these terrorist attacks.